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Schematic of the HPA axis (CRH, corticotropin-releasing hormone; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone) Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal cortex The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis or HTPA axis) is a complex set of direct influences and feedback interactions among three components: the hypothalamus (a part of the brain located below the thalamus), the pituitary gland (a ...
Alcohol use disorder can vary in severity. Alcohol dependence can impact stress and other disorders in many ways. [70] For example, stress-related disorders such as anxiety and PTSD are known to increase risk of alcohol use disorder (AUD), and they are often co-morbid. Mental disorders that pair with AUD can impacts the brain in many ways.
During chronic stress conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), blood serum levels of CRH are decreased in combat veterans with PTSD compared to healthy individuals. [9] It is believed that chronic stress enhances the negative feedback inhibition of the HPA axis, resulting in lower CRH levels and HPA function. [10] [11] [12]
This leads to a restoration in HPA activity and stress reactivity, thus restoring the deleterious effects induced by stress on 5-HT. [ 119 ] The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis is a chain of endocrine structures that are activated during the body's response to stressors of various sorts.
For instance, extreme stress (e.g. trauma) is a requisite factor to produce stress-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder. [6] Chronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit based learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial working memory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergic systems. [39]
Chronic stress also causes greater response to fear of the unlearned in the nervous system, and fear conditioning. [16] In the immune system, the increase in levels of chronic stress results in the elevation of inflammation. The increase in inflammation levels is caused by the ongoing activation of the sympathetic nervous system. [5]
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