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The manifesto which Nicholas II issued on 15 February 1899 was cause for Finnish despair. [1] [2] [a] The manifesto was forced through the Finnish senate by the deciding vote of the senate president, an appointee of the tsar—and after the Governor-General of Finland, Nikolay Bobrikov, had threatened a military invasion and siege. [1]
The Finns felt the February Manifesto was a coup d'etat. When Finland had been annexed to Russia in 1809, Emperor Alexander I had promised that the old laws could stay in force. According to the interpretation in Finland at the time, this also included the Swedish Gustavian era constitution, defining the rights of the Diet of Finland. These ...
The policy of Russification of Finland (1899–1905 and 1908–1917, called sortokaudet / sortovuodet ('times/years of oppression') in Finnish) was the policy of the Russian czars designed to limit the special status of the Grand Duchy of Finland and fully integrate it politically, militarily, and culturally into the empire. [71]
Map showing territory changes at the end of the Finnish War. Modern country boundaries are indicated by dotted red lines. The Treaty of Fredrikshamn (Swedish: Freden i Fredrikshamn; Russian: Фридрихсгамский мирный договор), or the Treaty of Hamina (Finnish: Haminan rauha), was a peace treaty concluded between Sweden and Imperial Russia on 17 September 1809.
From Grand Duchy to a Modern State: A Political History of Finland Since 1809 (Hurst & Co. 1999). Kan, Aleksander. "Storfurstendömet Finland 1809–1917 – dess autonomi enligt den nutida finska historieskrivningen" (in Swedish) ["Autonomous Finland 1809–1917 in contemporary Finnish historiography"] Historisk Tidskrift, 2008, Issue 1, pp. 3 ...
The Russification of Finland (1899–1905, 1908–1917), sortokaudet ("times of oppression" in Finnish) was a governmental policy of the Russian Empire aimed at the termination of Finland's autonomy. Finnish opposition to Russification was one of the main factors that ultimately led to Finland's declaration of independence in 1917.
In the history of Finland, the Kagal was a resistance movement that existed before the 1905 Russian Revolution and founded under the period of Russian oppression, in resistance to the oppressive government of Governor-General Nikolai Bobrikov which actively conducted Russification of Finland.
The Russification campaign resulted in resistance of which the arms smuggling by John Grafton was a part. Eventually no military action resulted at the time, though Finland did eventually declare independence on 6 December 1917 following the October Revolution in Russia. John Grafton was a 315-ton ship built in 1883.