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Some bacteria prevent the fusion of a phagosome and lysosome, to form the phagolysosome. [107] Other pathogens, such as Leishmania, create a highly modified vacuole inside the phagocyte, which helps them persist and replicate. [118] Some bacteria are capable of living inside of the phagolysosome.
Each antibody binds to a specific antigen in a highly specific interaction analogous to a lock and key.. An antibody (Ab) or immunoglobulin (Ig) is a large, Y-shaped protein belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily which is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize antigens such as bacteria and viruses, including those that cause disease.
A hapten is a small molecule that can only induce an immune response when attached to a larger carrier molecule, such as a protein. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids or other biomolecules. [4] This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbriae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other ...
It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to bacteria, as well as cancer cells, parasitic worms, and also objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system.
Serum substances that aggregate bacteria and precipitate bacterial toxins: von Gruber and Durham (1896), Kraus (1897) Hemolysins: Serum substances that work with complements to lyse red blood cells: Jules Bordet (1899) Opsonins: Serum substances that coat the outer membrane of foreign substances and enhance the rate of phagocytosis by macrophages
Production of interferons occurs mainly in response to microbes, such as viruses and bacteria, and their products. Binding of molecules uniquely found in microbes—viral glycoproteins , viral RNA , bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide), bacterial flagella , CpG motifs —by pattern recognition receptors , such as membrane bound toll like ...
The innate immune system is made of non-specific defensive mechanisms against foreign cells inside the host including skin as a physical barrier to entry, activation of the complement cascade to identify foreign bacteria and activate necessary cell responses, and white blood cells that remove foreign substances.
[2] [3] Typically, the term pathogen is used to describe an infectious microorganism or agent, such as a virus, bacterium, protozoan, prion, viroid, or fungus. [4] [5] [6] Small animals, such as helminths and insects, can also cause or transmit disease. However, these animals are usually referred to as parasites rather than pathogens. [7]