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Error-correcting codes are used in lower-layer communication such as cellular network, high-speed fiber-optic communication and Wi-Fi, [11] [12] as well as for reliable storage in media such as flash memory, hard disk and RAM. [13] Error-correcting codes are usually distinguished between convolutional codes and block codes:
The calling convention of the System V AMD64 ABI is followed on Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, macOS, [26] and is the de facto standard among Unix and Unix-like operating systems. The OpenVMS Calling Standard on x86-64 is based on the System V ABI with some extensions needed for backwards compatibility. [ 27 ]
The Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX; IPA: / ˈ p ɒ z. ɪ k s / [ 1 ] ) is a family of standards specified by the IEEE Computer Society for maintaining compatibility between operating systems . [ 1 ]
The modules below the application layer are generally considered part of the operating system. Passing data between these modules is much less expensive than passing data between an application program and the transport layer. The boundary between the application layer and the transport layer is called the operating system boundary. [57]
The Berkeley socket API is a general interface for networking and interprocess communication, and supports the use of various network protocols and address architectures. The following lists a sampling of protocol families (preceded by the standard symbolic identifier) defined in a modern Linux or BSD implementation:
File descriptors for a single process, file table and inode table. Note that multiple file descriptors can refer to the same file table entry (e.g., as a result of the dup system call [3]: 104 ) and that multiple file table entries can in turn refer to the same inode (if it has been opened multiple times; the table is still simplified because it represents inodes by file names, even though an ...
Standard output is a stream to which a program writes its output data. The program requests data transfer with the write operation. Not all programs generate output.
In standard ARQ, redundant bits are added to data to be transmitted using an error-detecting (ED) code such as a cyclic redundancy check (CRC). Receivers detecting a corrupted message will request a new message from the sender.