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The motherhood penalty refers to the economic disadvantages women face in the workplace as a result of becoming mothers. [1] [2] [3] This sociological concept highlights how working mothers often experience wage reductions, diminished perceived competence, and fewer career advancement opportunities compared to their childless counterparts.
In genetics, a maternal effect occurs when the phenotype of an organism is determined by the genotype of its mother. [1] For example, if a mutation is maternal effect recessive, then a female homozygous for the mutation may appear phenotypically normal, however her offspring will show the mutant phenotype, even if they are heterozygous for the mutation.
The maternal mortality ratio is a key performance indicator (KPI) for efforts to improve the health and safety of mothers before, during, and after childbirth per country worldwide. Often referred to as MMR, it is the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management ...
The maternal wall is a term referring to stereotypes and various forms of discrimination encountered by working mothers and mothers seeking employment. Women hit the maternal wall when they encounter workplace discrimination because of past, present, or future pregnancies or because they have taken one or more maternity leaves. [ 1 ]
Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English, two feminist scholars, stated that Women and Economics was “the theoretical breakthrough for a whole generation of feminists, [for it] appealed not to right or morality but to evolutionary theory.” [20] Conversely, one scholar stated that “Gilman’s evolutionary feminism does not provide ...
The effect of the educational gender gap is more pronounced when a country is only moderately poor. [3] Thus the incentive to invest in women goes up as a country moves out of extreme poverty. [3] In addition to total economic growth, women's education also increases the equitability of the distribution of wealth in a society.
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There is a lack of evidence to support a genetic difference between racial groups as a cause of maternal health disparities such as preterm birth. [6] Social factors, such as structural racism, have been suggested as a contributory cause of the wide racial disparities in maternal health in the United States.