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Capacitors and inductors as used in electric circuits are not ideal components with only capacitance or inductance.However, they can be treated, to a very good degree of approximation, as being ideal capacitors and inductors in series with a resistance; this resistance is defined as the equivalent series resistance (ESR) [1].
The equivalent resistance R th is the resistance that the circuit between terminals A and B would have if all ideal voltage sources in the circuit were replaced by a short circuit and all ideal current sources were replaced by an open circuit (i.e., the sources are set to provide zero voltages and currents).
A typical ESR Meter. This one also measures capacitance. An ESR meter is a two-terminal electronic measuring instrument designed and used primarily to measure the equivalent series resistance (ESR) of real capacitors; usually without the need to disconnect the capacitor from the circuit it is connected to.
If the resistance is not constant, the previous equation cannot be called Ohm's law, but it can still be used as a definition of static/DC resistance. [4] Ohm's law is an empirical relation which accurately describes the conductivity of the vast majority of electrically conductive materials over many orders of magnitude of current.
Changing the bias moves the operating point up or down on the curves, thus changing the equivalent small-signal AC resistance, gain, etc. seen by the signal. Any nonlinear component whose characteristics are given by a continuous, single-valued, smooth (differentiable) curve can be approximated by a linear small-signal model.
The Norton resistance R no is found by calculating the output voltage V o produced at A and B with no resistance or load connected to, then R no = V o / I no; equivalently, this is the resistance between the terminals with all (independent) voltage sources short-circuited and independent current sources open-circuited (i.e., each independent ...
The total resistance is the sum of the individual resistances, as expressed by the following equation: R total = R artery + R arterioles + R capillaries. The largest proportion of resistance in this series is contributed by the arterioles. [3] Parallel resistance is illustrated by the circulatory system.
Various resistor types of different shapes and sizes. A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses.