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In the differential form formulation on arbitrary space times, F = 1 / 2 F αβ dx α ∧ dx β is the electromagnetic tensor considered as a 2-form, A = A α dx α is the potential 1-form, = is the current 3-form, d is the exterior derivative, and is the Hodge star on forms defined (up to its orientation, i.e. its sign) by the ...
The standard example of a longitudinal wave is a sound wave or "pressure wave" in gases, liquids, or solids, whose oscillations cause compression and expansion of the material through which the wave is propagating. Pressure waves are called "primary waves", or "P-waves" in geophysics. Water waves involve both longitudinal and transverse motions ...
Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic force is the second strongest of the four known fundamental forces and has unlimited range. [17] All other forces, known as non-fundamental forces. [18] (e.g., friction, contact forces) are derived from the four ...
The quantity V = qA is sometimes called the potential momentum. [ 41 ] [ 42 ] [ 43 ] It is the momentum due to the interaction of the particle with the electromagnetic fields. The name is an analogy with the potential energy U = q φ , which is the energy due to the interaction of the particle with the electromagnetic fields.
In physics, gravity (from Latin gravitas 'weight' [1]) is a fundamental interaction primarily observed as a mutual attraction between all things that have mass.Gravity is, by far, the weakest of the four fundamental interactions, approximately 10 38 times weaker than the strong interaction, 10 36 times weaker than the electromagnetic force, and 10 29 times weaker than the weak interaction.
Polarization of a gravitational wave is just like polarization of a light wave except that the polarizations of a gravitational wave are 45 degrees apart, as opposed to 90 degrees. [56] In particular, in a "cross"-polarized gravitational wave, h × , the effect on the test particles would be basically the same, but rotated by 45 degrees, as ...
The fraction of the total energy density of our (flat or almost flat) universe that is dark energy, , is estimated to be 0.669 ± 0.038 based on the 2018 Dark Energy Survey results using Type Ia supernovae [7] or 0.6847 ± 0.0073 based on the 2018 release of Planck satellite data, or more than 68.3% (2018 estimate) of the mass–energy density ...
Forms of sustainable marine energy include tidal power, ocean thermal energy and wave power. [182] [183] Electricity power stations are often located on the coast or beside an estuary so that the sea can be used as a heat sink. A colder heat sink enables more efficient power generation, which is important for expensive nuclear power plants in ...