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In the laboratory, amorphous ice transforms into crystalline ice if it is heated above 130 K, although the exact temperature of this conversion is dependent on the environment and ice growth conditions. [167] The reaction is irreversible and exothermic, releasing 1.26–1.6 kJ/mol. [167]
The Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process (after Alfred Wegener, Tor Bergeron and Walter Findeisen []), (or "cold-rain process") is a process of ice crystal growth that occurs in mixed phase clouds (containing a mixture of supercooled water and ice) in regions where the ambient vapor pressure falls between the saturation vapor pressure over water and the lower saturation vapor pressure over ice.
A process whereby scientists seed a cloud with artificial ice nuclei to encourage precipitation is known as cloud seeding. This can help cause precipitation in clouds that otherwise may not rain. Cloud seeding adds excess artificial ice nuclei which shifts the balance so that there are many nuclei compared to the amount of super cooled liquid ...
Ice sheet collapse occurred when the global average temperature was 3 °C warmer than today and carbon dioxide concentration was at 400 ppmv. This resulted in open waters in the Ross Sea. [44] Global sea-level fluctuation associated with ice-sheet collapse was probably up to 7 meters for the west Antarctic and 3 meters for the east Antarctic.
[4] [5] Charles Darwin more famously proposed the theory of universal common descent through an evolutionary process in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859: "Therefore I should infer from analogy that probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first ...
Systematists today do not treat Protista as a formal taxon, but the term "protist" is still commonly used for convenience in two ways. [22] The most popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic one, that identifies a paraphyletic group: [23] a protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, (land) plant, or (true) fungus; this definition [24] excludes many unicellular groups, like the ...
The fourth IPCC assessment report showed ice-sheet models with projections of rapid dynamical responses in the ice, which led to evidence of significant ice loss. [ 2 ] In 2016, part of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP Phase 6) was the Ice Sheet Model Intercomparison Project , which defined a protocol for all variables ...
The mantles of interstellar ice grains are generally amorphous, becoming crystalline only in the presence of a star. [3] The composition of interstellar ice can be determined through its infrared spectrum. As starlight passes through a molecular cloud containing ice, molecules in the cloud absorb energy. This adsorption occurs at the ...