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Pesticide application can artificially select for resistant pests. In this diagram, the first generation happens to have an insect with a heightened resistance to a pesticide (red) After pesticide application, its descendants represent a larger proportion of the population, because sensitive pests (white) have been selectively killed.
They have been used in companion planting as pest control in agricultural and garden situations, and in households. Certain plants have shown effectiveness as topical repellents for haematophagous insects, such as the use of lemon eucalyptus in PMD, but incomplete research and misunderstood applications can produce variable results. [1]
In 2013, a second issue being seen across the world, was the development of Bt resistant pests limiting the usefulness of Bt crops. [15] Main drivers for the widespread resistance in India and China included the high proportion of Bt cotton being planted, 90% and 95% respectively in 2011, [9] [16] and few refuge areas. [12] [17] [18]
Thus, B. thuringiensis serves as an important reservoir of Cry toxins for production of biological insecticides and insect-resistant genetically modified crops. When insects ingest toxin crystals, their alkaline digestive tracts denature the insoluble crystals, making them soluble and thus amenable to being cut with proteases found in the ...
The majority of GM crops have been modified to be resistant to selected herbicides, usually a glyphosate or glufosinate based one. In 2014, 154 million hectares were planted with a herbicide resistant crop and 78.8 million hectares had insect resistant.
Insect resistance management plans are mandatory for Bt crops. The aim is to encourage a large population of pests so that any (recessive) resistance genes are diluted within the population. Resistance lowers evolutionary fitness in the absence of the stressor, Bt. In refuges, non-resistant strains outcompete resistant ones. [214]
Plants with transgenic/GM disease resistance against insect pests have been extremely successful as commercial products, especially in maize and cotton, and are planted annually on over 20 million hectares in over 20 countries worldwide [49] (see also genetically modified crops). Transgenic plant disease resistance against microbial pathogens ...
A resistance management plan is intended to sustain the useful life of transgenic technology and well as the utility of the toxin for organic farmers. This is part of the reason the EPA enacts “risk assessments that evaluate the potential for harm to humans, wildlife, fish, and plants, including endangered species and non-target organisms.