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French philosopher Voltaire argued for religious tolerance. Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War. [76]
Voltaire was one of the first authors to become renowned and commercially successful internationally. He was an outspoken advocate of civil liberties and was at constant risk from the strict censorship laws of the Catholic French monarchy. His polemics witheringly satirized intolerance and religious dogma, as
The philosophes (French for 'philosophers') were the intellectuals of the 18th-century European Enlightenment. [1] Few were primarily philosophers; rather, philosophes were public intellectuals who applied reason to the study of many areas of learning, including philosophy, history, science, politics, economics and social issues.
The long version was first published as "What Is Enlightenment" in English in The Foucault Reader. [2] It was first published in French in 1993 in Magazine littéraire under the title "Kant et la modernité " [1] and in 1994 in the fourth volume of Michel Foucault: Dits et Ecrits 1954–1988, edited by Daniel Defert and François Ewald.
The Age of Enlightenment was a broad philosophical movement in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The traditional theological-political system that placed Scripture at the center, with religious authorities and monarchies claiming and enforcing their power by divine right, was challenged and overturned in the realm of ideas.
Madame du Deffand was an upper class French woman, who held weekly salons in Paris. Known for her intelligence and cynicism, Deffand became friends with Enlightenment writer Voltaire, with whom she kept regular contact with throughout her life. [37]
Lilti, Antoine (2005b), Le Monde des salons: sociabilité et mondanité à Paris au XVIIIe siècle (in French), Paris, France: Fayard, ISBN 9782213622927; published in English as The World of the Salons: Sociability and Worldliness in Eighteenth-Century Paris, translated by Cochrane, Lydia G., Oxford, England & New York, NY: Oxford University ...
The French Revolution in particular represents a violent application of the Lumières' philosophy, especially during the Reign of Terror, the interregnum of the Jacobins. Descartes characterised the desire for a "rational" and "spiritual" revolution as one that aimed to eradicate the Church, and Christianity, entirely.