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In mathematics (specifically multivariable calculus), a multiple integral is a definite integral of a function of several real variables, for instance, f(x, y) or f(x, y, z). Integrals of a function of two variables over a region in (the real-number plane) are called double integrals, and integrals of a function of three variables over a region ...
The Gauss–Kronrod quadrature formula is an adaptive method for numerical integration. It is a variant of Gaussian quadrature, in which the evaluation points are chosen so that an accurate approximation can be computed by re-using the information produced by the computation of a less accurate approximation. It is an example of what is called a ...
The term "numerical integration" first appears in 1915 in the publication A Course in Interpolation and Numeric Integration for the Mathematical Laboratory by David Gibb. [2] "Quadrature" is a historical mathematical term that means calculating area. Quadrature problems have served as one of the main sources of mathematical analysis.
In numerical analysis, Gauss–Legendre quadrature is a form of Gaussian quadrature for approximating the definite integral of a function. For integrating over the interval [−1, 1], the rule takes the form: where. n is the number of sample points used, wi are quadrature weights, and. xi are the roots of the n th Legendre polynomial.
Calculus. In calculus, integration by substitution, also known as u-substitution, reverse chain rule or change of variables, [1] is a method for evaluating integrals and antiderivatives. It is the counterpart to the chain rule for differentiation, and can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule "backwards."
The exterior algebra of a vector space over a field is defined as the quotient algebra of the tensor algebra by the two-sided ideal generated by all elements of the form such that . [6] Symbolically, The exterior product of two elements of is defined by.
To compute the integral, we set n to its value and use the reduction formula to express it in terms of the (n – 1) or (n – 2) integral. The lower index integral can be used to calculate the higher index ones; the process is continued repeatedly until we reach a point where the function to be integrated can be computed, usually when its index is 0 or 1.
Direct integral. In mathematics and functional analysis, a direct integral or Hilbert integral is a generalization of the concept of direct sum. The theory is most developed for direct integrals of Hilbert spaces and direct integrals of von Neumann algebras. The concept was introduced in 1949 by John von Neumann in one of the papers in the ...