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Originally, incubators were used by poultry farmers to hatch chicken eggs, with the original design being little more than a heated, enclosed box. [6] Stéphane Tarnier, a prominent French obstetrician in the nineteenth century, has been widely recognised as the first to implement incubators in the care of human infants. [10]
Edwin Chadwick (1800–1890) identified the public health issues in crowded cities and led major reforms in urban sanitation and public health. He pioneered the use of systematic surveys to identify all phases of a complex social problem, and pioneered the use of systematic long-term inspection programmes to make sure the reforms operated as ...
The Mongol Empire established commercial and political connections between the Eastern and Western areas of the world, through the most mobile army ever seen. The armies, composed of the most rapidly moving travelers who had ever moved between the steppes of East Asia (where bubonic plague was and remains endemic among small rodents), managed to keep the chain of infection without a break ...
The germ theory of disease proposes that invisible microorganisms (bacteria and viruses) are the cause of particular illnesses in both humans and animals. [2] Prior to medicine becoming hard science , there were many philosophical theories about how disease originated and was transmitted.
Biological warfare, also known as germ warfare, is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, insects, and fungi with the intent to kill, harm or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war. [1]
Young people with polio receiving physiotherapy in the 1950s. The social history of viruses describes the influence of viruses and viral infections on human history. Epidemics caused by viruses began when human behaviour changed during the Neolithic period, around 12,000 years ago, when humans developed more densely populated agricultural communities.
The history of biology traces the study of the living world from ancient to modern times. Although the concept of biology as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to Ayurveda, ancient Egyptian medicine and the works of Aristotle, Theophrastus and Galen in the ancient Greco-Roman world.
Epidemics of the 19th century were faced without the medical advances that made 20th-century epidemics much rarer and less lethal. Micro-organisms (viruses and bacteria) had been discovered in the 18th century, but it was not until the late 19th century that the experiments of Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation conclusively, allowing germ theory and Robert ...