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Parental care is beneficial if it increases the parent's inclusive fitness, such as by improving offspring survival, quality, or reproductive success. [3] Since parental care is costly and often affects the parent's own future survival and reproductive success, parents ensure that any investment is well-spent.
The motherhood penalty refers to the economic disadvantages women face in the workplace as a result of becoming mothers. [1] [2] [3] This sociological concept highlights how working mothers often experience wage reductions, diminished perceived competence, and fewer career advancement opportunities compared to their childless counterparts.
Paternal care may be provided in concert with the mother (biparental care) or, more rarely, by the male alone (so called exclusive paternal care). The provision of care, by either males or females, is presumed to increase growth rates, quality, and/or survival of young, and hence ultimately increase the inclusive fitness of parents.
As the number of children growing up in single-parent households has risen over the last one hundred years, [1] [2] the possible effects of living arrangements has become more impactful in children's schooling, as well as other aspects of their lives, including health and work. Children growing up in single-parent families may correlate with ...
In many cases, orphaned or abandoned children receive parental care from non-parent or non-blood relations. Others may be adopted, raised in foster care, or placed in an orphanage. Parenting skills vary, and a parent or surrogate with good parenting skills may be referred to as a good parent. [3]
Conflict between work and family is bi-directional.There is a distinction between what is termed work-to-family conflict and what is termed family-to-work conflict. [3]Work-to-family conflict occurs when experiences and commitments at work interfere with family life, such as extensive, irregular, or inflexible work hours, work overload and other forms of job stress, interpersonal conflict at ...
[92] [94] LGBTQ parents are also more likely to foster or adopt, two processes that often require longer time periods of parent-child bonding and can have uncertain timelines of care. [95] These parents more than heterosexual ones are affected and denied important connection periods when there is a lack of inclusive parental leave policy. [92]
Demonstration for parental leave in the European Parliament. Parental leave, or family leave, is an employee benefit available in almost all countries. [1] The term "parental leave" may include maternity, paternity, and adoption leave; or may be used distinctively from "maternity leave" and "paternity leave" to describe separate family leave available to either parent to care for their own ...