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The unit commitment problem (UC) in electrical power production is a large family of mathematical optimization problems where the production of a set of electrical generators is coordinated in order to achieve some common target, usually either matching the energy demand at minimum cost or maximizing revenue from electricity production.
where is the electric constant and = | | is the distance between each pair of electrons located at points on the sphere defined by vectors and , respectively. Simplified units of e = 1 {\displaystyle e=1} and k e = 1 / 4 π ϵ 0 = 1 {\displaystyle k_{e}=1/4\pi \epsilon _{0}=1} (the Coulomb constant ) are used without loss of generality.
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path (a circuit), usually to perform some useful task. [ 56 ] The components in an electric circuit can take many forms, which can include elements such as resistors , capacitors , switches , transformers and electronics .
Angle notation can easily describe leading and lagging current: . [1] In this equation, the value of theta is the important factor for leading and lagging current. As mentioned in the introduction above, leading or lagging current represents a time shift between the current and voltage sine curves, which is represented by the angle by which the curve is ahead or behind of where it would be ...
A switched-mode power supply operating at the current limit with the output short-circuited does not have increased power dissipation in the power transistor(s), so foldback current limiting is an application feature only rather than one that also prevents a load fault from also destroying the power supply. The safety benefit of reducing the ...
The others are experimental, meaning that there is a difficulty in creating an experiment to test a proposed theory or investigate a phenomenon in greater detail. There are still some questions beyond the Standard Model of physics , such as the strong CP problem , neutrino mass , matter–antimatter asymmetry , and the nature of dark matter and ...
In an alternating current (AC) electric power system, synchronization is the process of matching the frequency, phase and voltage of a generator or other source to an electrical grid in order to transfer power. If two unconnected segments of a grid are to be connected to each other, they cannot safely exchange AC power until they are synchronized.
In most electric power systems, some or all consumers pay a fixed price per unit of electricity independent of the cost of production at the time of consumption. The consumer price may be established by the government or a regulator, and typically represents an average cost per unit of production over a given timeframe (for example, a year).