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For example, if number => number is the type of function taking a number as an argument and returning a number, and string => string is the type of function taking a string as an argument and returning a string, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe (overloaded) functions that do one or the other, based on what type ...
The null coalescing operator is a binary operator that is part of the syntax for a basic conditional expression in several programming languages, such as (in alphabetical order): C# [1] since version 2.0, [2] Dart [3] since version 1.12.0, [4] PHP since version 7.0.0, [5] Perl since version 5.10 as logical defined-or, [6] PowerShell since 7.0.0, [7] and Swift [8] as nil-coalescing operator.
This article lists concurrent and parallel programming languages, categorizing them by a defining paradigm. Concurrent and parallel programming languages involve multiple timelines. Such languages provide synchronization constructs whose behavior is defined by a parallel execution model.
Those languages also need to specify when one function type is a subtype of another—that is, when it is safe to use a function of one type in a context that expects a function of a different type. It is safe to substitute a function f for a function g if f accepts a more general type of argument and returns a more specific type than g.
List comprehension – C# 3 LINQ; Tuples – .NET Framework 4.0 but it becomes popular when C# 7.0 introduced a new tuple type with language support [104] Nested functions – C# 7.0 [104] Pattern matching – C# 7.0 [104] Immutability – C# 7.2 readonly struct C# 9 record types [105] and Init only setters [106]
In Python 3.x the range() function [28] returns a generator which computes elements of the list on demand. Elements are only generated when they are needed (e.g., when print(r[3]) is evaluated in the following example), so this is an example of lazy or deferred evaluation:
For example, Scala's List is a covariant type constructor, so List[Nothing] is a subtype of List[A] for all types A. So Scala's Nil, the object for marking the end of a list of any type, belongs to the type List[Nothing]. In Rust, the bottom type is called the never type and is denoted by !.
In software engineering, the multiton pattern is a design pattern which generalizes the singleton pattern.Whereas the singleton allows only one instance of a class to be created, the multiton pattern allows for the controlled creation of multiple instances, which it manages through the use of a map.