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Amenorrhea or amenorrhoea is the absence of a menstrual period in a female who has reached reproductive age. [1] Physiological states of amenorrhoea are most commonly seen during pregnancy and lactation ( breastfeeding ).
Some animals may display bloody vaginal discharge, often mistaken for menstruation. [3] Many mammals used in commercial agriculture, such as cattle and sheep, may have their estrous cycles artificially controlled with hormonal medications for optimum productivity. [4] [5] The male equivalent, seen primarily in ruminants, is called rut. [2]
Hypoprolactinemia can result from autoimmune disease, [2] hypopituitarism, [1] growth hormone deficiency, [2] hypothyroidism, [2] excessive dopamine action in the tuberoinfundibular pathway and/or the anterior pituitary, and ingestion of drugs that activate the D 2 receptor, such as direct D 2 receptor agonists like bromocriptine and pergolide, and indirect D 2 receptor activators like ...
pentobarbital – humane euthanasia of animals not to be used for food; pentoxyfylline – xanthine derivative used in as an antiinflammatory drug and in the prevention of endotoxemia; pergolide – dopamine receptor agonist used for the treatment of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction in horses; phenobarbital – anti-convulsant used for ...
Symptoms of the condition in women may consist of menstrual irregularities, amenorrhea, abnormal vaginal bleeding, and enlargement of the uterus and breasts. [1] [2] It may also present as isosexual precocity in children [1] [2] and as hypogonadism, gynecomastia, feminization, impotence, and loss of libido in males. [3]
It is in fact possible to restore ovulation using appropriate medication, and ovulation is successfully restored in approximately 90% of cases. The first step is the diagnosis of anovulation. The identification of anovulation is not easy; contrary to what is commonly believed, women undergoing anovulation still have (more or less) regular periods.
One of the first drugs sold was medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA). MPA was effective in reducing estrous production in female dogs as well as reducing testosterone levels in males. It was later removed from the market due to a high risk of cystic endometrial hyperplasia and uterine infection. [4]
Hormonal therapies to reduce or stop menstrual bleeding have long been used to manage a number of gynecologic conditions including menstrual cramps (dysmenorrhea), heavy menstrual bleeding, irregular or other abnormal uterine bleeding, menstrual-related mood changes (premenstrual syndrome or premenstrual dysphoric disorder), and pelvic pain due to endometriosis or uterine fibroids.