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The preferred bolt preload for structural applications should be at least 75% of the fastener's proof load [7] for the higher strength fasteners and as high as 90% of the proof load for permanent fasteners. To achieve the benefits of the preloading, the clamping force must be higher than the joint separation load.
A proof test is a form of stress test to demonstrate the fitness of a load-bearing or impact-experiencing structure. An individual proof test may apply only to the unit tested, or to its design in general for mass-produced items. Such a structure is often subjected to loads above those expected in actual use, demonstrating safety and design margin.
ASTM A325 is an ASTM International standard for heavy hex structural bolts, titled Standard Specification for Structural Bolts, Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength. It defines mechanical properties for bolts that range from 1 ⁄ 2 to 1 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (13 to 38 mm) in diameter.
Strength depends upon material properties. The strength of a material depends on its capacity to withstand axial stress, shear stress, bending, and torsion.The strength of a material is measured in force per unit area (newtons per square millimetre or N/mm², or the equivalent megapascals or MPa in the SI system and often pounds per square inch psi in the United States Customary Units system).
In engineering, a factor of safety (FoS) or safety factor (SF) expresses how much stronger a system is than it needs to be for an intended load.Safety factors are often calculated using detailed analysis because comprehensive testing is impractical on many projects, such as bridges and buildings, but the structure's ability to carry a load must be determined to a reasonable accuracy.
In terms of the actual load on a structure, there is no difference between dead or live loading, but the split occurs for use in safety calculations or ease of analysis on complex models. To meet the requirement that design strength be higher than maximum loads, building codes prescribe that, for structural design, loads are increased by load ...
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The EPC contractor coordinates all design, procurement and construction work and ensures that the whole project is completed as required and in time. They may or may not undertake actual site work. EPC companies are often used in large-scale projects, such as power plants, refineries, chemical processing facilities, infrastructure projects, and ...