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Inbreeding avoidance has been studied via three main methods: (1) observing individual behavior in the presence and absence of close kin, (2) contrasting costs of avoidance with costs of tolerating close inbreeding, and (3) comparing observed and random frequencies of close inbreeding. [38]
The avoidance of expression of such deleterious recessive alleles caused by inbreeding, via inbreeding avoidance mechanisms, is the main selective reason for outcrossing. [6] [7] Crossbreeding between populations sometimes has positive effects on fitness-related traits, [8] but also sometimes leads to negative effects known as outbreeding ...
Being able to identify your mate is not all, recognition can also help in the context of mate selection as individual recognition allows birds to avoid inbreeding with conspecifics. [5] Inbreeding avoidance has been shown in a species of storm petrel, a colonial seabird that nests in burrows. In the case of storm petrels, individual relatedness ...
In evolutionary biology and psychology, such an ability is presumed to have evolved for inbreeding avoidance, [1] though animals do not typically avoid inbreeding. [2] An additional adaptive function sometimes posited for kin recognition is a role in kin selection. There is debate over this, since in strict theoretical terms kin recognition is ...
The Westermarck effect has gained some empirical support. [2] Proponents point to evidence from the Israeli kibbutz system, from the Chinese Shim-pua marriage customs, and from closely related families.
Numerous inbreeding avoidance mechanisms operating prior to mating have been described. However, inbreeding avoidance mechanisms that operate subsequent to copulation are less well known. In guppies, a post-copulatory mechanism of inbreeding avoidance occurs based on competition between sperm of rival males for achieving fertilization. [55]
Ontogeny is the process of development of an individual organism from the zygote through the embryo to the adult form. In the latter half of the twentieth century, social scientists debated whether human behaviour was the product of nature (genes) or nurture (environment in the developmental period, including culture).
Sequential hermaphroditism can also protect against inbreeding in populations of organisms that have low enough motility and/or are sparsely distributed enough that there is a considerable risk of siblings encountering each other after reaching sexual maturity, and interbreeding.