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"A negative norm of reciprocity represents the means by which individuals act against unfavourable treatments, and functions to keep balance in social systems". [6] In contrast to the positive reciprocity norm, the negative reciprocity norm emphasizes the return of unfavourable treatment as an appropriate response to a misdeed.
Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by an instructor throughout the learning process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient learning than teacher-centered learning.
Negative reciprocity occurs when an action that has a negative effect on someone is returned with an action that has an approximately equal negative effect. [ 23 ] [ 28 ] For example, if an individual commits a violent act against a person, it is expected that person would return with a similar act of violence.
Social learning theory is a theory of social behavior that proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. [1]
Negative washback occurs in situations where there may be a mismatch between the stated goals of instruction and the focus of assessment; it may lead to the abandonment of instructional goals in favor of test preparation. [1] The effect of a test on learning and teaching is a concept discussed as early as the 19th century. [1]
The harmonic mean of a set of positive integers is the number of numbers times the reciprocal of the sum of their reciprocals. The optic equation requires the sum of the reciprocals of two positive integers a and b to equal the reciprocal of a third positive integer c. All solutions are given by a = mn + m 2, b = mn + n 2, c = mn.