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Where ψ and φ represent formulas of propositional logic, ψ is a substitution instance of φ if and only if ψ may be obtained from φ by substituting formulas for propositional variables in φ, replacing each occurrence of the same variable by an occurrence of the same formula. For example: ψ: (R → S) & (T → S) is a substitution ...
Change of variables is an operation that is related to substitution. However these are different operations, as can be seen when considering differentiation or integration (integration by substitution). A very simple example of a useful variable change can be seen in the problem of finding the roots of the sixth-degree polynomial:
This is a corner solution as the highest possible IC (IC 2) intersects the budget line at one of the intercepts (x-intercept). [1] In mathematics and economics, a corner solution is a special solution to an agent's maximization problem in which the quantity of one of the arguments in the maximized function is zero. In non-technical terms, a ...
Liskov's notion of a behavioural subtype defines a notion of substitutability for objects; that is, if S is a subtype of T, then objects of type T in a program may be replaced with objects of type S without altering any of the desirable properties of that program (e.g. correctness).
For example, if the MRS xy = 2, the consumer will give up 2 units of Y to obtain 1 additional unit of X. As one moves down a (standardly convex) indifference curve, the marginal rate of substitution decreases (as measured by the absolute value of the slope of the indifference curve, which decreases).
The substitution is described in most integral calculus textbooks since the late 19th century, usually without any special name. [5] It is known in Russia as the universal trigonometric substitution , [ 6 ] and also known by variant names such as half-tangent substitution or half-angle substitution .
In logic, equality is a primitive predicate (a statement that may have free variables) with the reflexive property (called the Law of identity), and the substitution property. From those, one can derive the rest of the properties usually needed for equality.
commutes and such that (P, i 1, i 2) is universal with respect to this diagram. That is, for any other such triple (Q, j 1, j 2) for which the following diagram commutes, there must exist a unique u : P → Q also making the diagram commute: As with all universal constructions, the pushout, if it exists, is unique up to a unique isomorphism.