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Mitragynine toxicity in humans is rarely reported although specific examples of seizures and liver toxicity in kratom consumers have been reported. [ 34 ] [ 32 ] Due to cytochrome P450 enzyme inhibition, the combination of mitragynine with other drugs poses concern for adverse reactions to mitragynine.
Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl is a μ-opioid receptor agonist and δ-opioid receptor antagonist.It is a G protein biased agonist at the μ-opioid receptor, which may be responsible for its favorable side effect profile compared to conventional opioids. [3]
7-Hydroxymitragynine (7-OH) is a terpenoid indole alkaloid from the plant Mitragyna speciosa, commonly known as kratom. [2] It was first described in 1994 [3] and is a human metabolite metabolized from mitragynine present in the Mitragyna speciosa. 7-OH binds to opioid receptors like mitragynine, but research suggests that 7-OH binds with greater efficacy.
Mitragyna speciosa is a tropical evergreen tree of the Rubiaceae family (coffee family) native to Southeast Asia. [3] It is indigenous to Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea, [4] where its leaves, known as kratom, have been used in herbal medicine since at least the 19th century. [5]
Alcohol can exacerbate the symptoms and may directly contribute to increased severity of symptoms. The reasons for toxicity vary depending on the mixture of drugs. Usually, most victims die after using two or more drugs in combination that suppress breathing, and the low blood oxygen level causes brain death.
It is a stereoisomer of Mitragynine and constitutes 0.00156 - 2.9% of the dried leaf material. [2] [3] Pharmacology. Pharmacodynamics.
Psychoactive plants include, but are not limited to, the following examples: Cannabis: cannabinoids; Tobacco: nicotine, anabasine, and other Nicotinic agonists, as well as beta-carboline alkaloids
Salvia divinorum, a dissociative hallucinogenic sage. This is a list of plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior.