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Roman interaction with Nubia started in the late first century BC after Egypt became part of the Roman empire, following the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium (31 BC). [2] The chronology falls under the Meroitic period (4th century BC to 4th century CE) of the kingdom of Kush.
Mounted Nubian elephant. Elephants were occasionally used in warfare during the Meroitic period as seen in the war against Rome around 20 BC. [50] There is some debate about the purpose of the Great Enclosure at Musawwarat es-Sufra, with earlier suggestions including an elephant-training camp. [69]
Amanirenas (also spelled Amanirena), was queen regnant of the Kingdom of Kush from the end of the 1st century BCE to beginning of the 1st century CE. [1] She is known for invading Roman occupied Egypt and successfully negotiating the end of Roman retaliation, [2] retaining Kushite independence.
Kushite ambition and excessive Roman taxation are two theories for a revolt supported by Kushite armies. [118]: 67–68 The ancient historians, Strabo and Pliny, give accounts of the conflict with Roman Egypt. Meroitic prince smiting his enemies (early first century AD) Strabo describes a war with the Romans in first-century BC. He stated that ...
Petronius led a campaign into present-day central Sudan against the Kingdom of Kush at Meroë, whose queen Imanarenat had previously attacked Roman Egypt. Failing to acquire permanent gains, he razed the city of Napata to the ground and retreated to the north. Strabo describes a war with the Romans in the 1st century BC.
Second Punic War Massinissa, King of Numidia. Throughout the war, Numidian cavalry continued to harass Roman forces, disrupting their supply lines and communications. Their presence forced the Romans to adopt a more cautious approach, hindering their ability to maneuver freely and engage in decisive battles.
Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 – Vologases IV invades Armenia, but is pushed back and Ctesiphon is sacked. Marcomannic Wars (166–180) – Roman Empire tried to expand in central Europe and establish proposed Roman province of Marcomannia (parts of the modern states and Slovakia and the Czech Republic) and Sarmatia (on Great Hungarian Plain).
The Battle of Actium was a naval battle fought between Octavian's maritime fleet, led by Marcus Agrippa, and the combined fleets of both Mark Antony and Cleopatra.The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC in the Ionian Sea, near the former Roman colony of Actium, Greece, and was the climax of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Antony.