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Pyrite disks or spindles are sometimes mistaken for fossils of sand dollars or other forms (see marcasite). Cracks, bumps, gas bubbles, and such can be difficult to distinguish from true fossils. Specimens that cannot be attributed with certainty to either fossils or pseudofossils are treated as dubiofossils. Debates on whether specific forms ...
All unrefined crude oil has some water entrained within it. During transportation by ship, separation occurs naturally and water collects at the base of the tank below the oil, this is known as free water (FW). [4] Sales contracts for crude oil will typically specify the BS&W and FW to ensure the cargo meets quality standards.
Fossil water can potentially dissolve and absorb a number of ions from its host rock. Salinity in groundwater can be higher than seawater. [5] In some cases, some form of treatment is required to make these waters suitable for human use. Saline fossil aquifers can also store significant quantities of oil and [6] natural gas. [7]
The fossil record and faunal succession form the basis of the science of biostratigraphy or determining the age of rocks based on embedded fossils. For the first 150 years of geology , biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the relative age of rocks.
The presence of oil and methane within non-sedimentary rocks upon the Earth [20] Gold The existence of methane hydrate deposits [6] Gold Perceived ambiguity in some assumptions and key evidence used in the conventional understanding of petroleum origin. [6] [15] Gold Bituminous coal creation is based upon deep hydrocarbon seeps [6] Gold
The water may be present in an aquifer (but rarely one replenished with surface water). This water gradually replaces the volume of oil and gas that is produced out of the well, given that the production rate is equivalent to the aquifer activity. That is, the aquifer is being replenished from some natural water influx.
The critical moment is crucial since it is based on the burial history of the source rock when it is at maximum burial depth. This is when most of the hydrocarbons are generated. Approximately 50%-90% petroleum is made and expelled at this point. The next step is the hydrocarbons entering the oil window.
Schematic unconventional reservoir classification expressed as fluid energy vs flow potential based on initials without stimulation. Unconventional (oil and gas) reservoirs, or unconventional resources (resource plays) are accumulations where oil and gas phases are tightly bound to the rock fabric by strong capillary forces, requiring specialized measures for evaluation and extraction.