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Vitrified clay pipe (VCP) is pipe made from a blend of clay and shale that has been subjected to high temperature to achieve vitrification, which results in a hard, inert ceramic. VCP is commonly used in gravity sewer collection mains because of its long life and resistance to almost all domestic and industrial sewage , particularly the ...
In recent years, top Wall Street investment banks have become increasingly involved in the PIPE market as placement agents. In a recent global study of PIPEs, analysing more than 10,000 PIPEs the world (PIPEs issued in 37 countries), firms raised $396 billion via PIPEs between 1995 and 2015, two thirds of which was raised by non-US firms. [2]
Orangeburg was a low cost alternative to metal for sewer lines in particular. Lack of strength causes pipes made of Orangeburg to fail more frequently than pipes made with other materials. The useful life for an Orangeburg pipe is about 50 years under ideal conditions, but has been known to fail in as little as 10 years.
The decision to build a combined sewer system or two separate systems is mainly based on the need for sewage treatment and the cost of providing treatment during heavy rain events. Many cities with combined sewer systems built their systems prior to installing sewage treatment plants, and have not subsequently replaced those sewer systems. [2]
The city of Uruk contains the oldest known examples of brick constructed Latrines, constructed atop interconnecting fired clay sewer pipes, c. 3200 BCE. [8] [9] Clay pipes were later used in the Hittite city of Hattusa. [10] They had easily detachable and replaceable segments, and allowed for cleaning.
The plastic discharge pipe of a pressure sewer is much more robust and can accommodate substantial movements in the ground without failing. [5] Costs can be lower than conventional sewers since the pipework is much cheaper and there is no requirement for manholes or other intermediate infrastructure.
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