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An oxygen sensor (or lambda sensor, where lambda refers to air–fuel equivalence ratio, usually denoted by λ) or probe or sond, is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen (O 2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed. [1] It was developed by Robert Bosch GmbH during the late 1960s under the supervision of Günter Bauman. [1]
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In optics, spatial cutoff frequency is a precise way to quantify the smallest object resolvable by an optical system. Due to diffraction at the image plane, all optical systems act as low pass filters with a finite ability to resolve detail.
Air–fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to a solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel present in a combustion process. The combustion may take place in a controlled manner such as in an internal combustion engine or industrial furnace, or may result in an explosion (e.g., a dust explosion).
The ability of a lens to resolve detail is usually determined by the quality of the lens, but is ultimately limited by diffraction.Light coming from a point source in the object diffracts through the lens aperture such that it forms a diffraction pattern in the image, which has a central spot and surrounding bright rings, separated by dark nulls; this pattern is known as an Airy pattern, and ...
The coefficient is defined as Lambda coefficient. If Lambda > 1 = lean mixture, excess of air. If Lambda < 1 = rich mixture, excess of gasoline. A lean mixture contains an excess of oxygen. The surplus oxygen will react with nitrogen to (oxides of nitrogen), if the temperature is high enough (around 1600 °C) for enough time to permit so.
Here NA is the numerical aperture, is half the included angle of the lens, which depends on the diameter of the lens and its focal length, is the refractive index of the medium between the lens and the specimen, and is the wavelength of light illuminating or emanating from (in the case of fluorescence microscopy) the sample.
The NA of a Gaussian laser beam is then related to its minimum spot size ("beam waist") by NA ≃ λ 0 π w 0 , {\displaystyle {\text{NA}}\simeq {\frac {\lambda _{0}}{\pi w_{0}}},} where λ 0 is the vacuum wavelength of the light, and 2 w 0 is the diameter of the beam at its narrowest spot, measured between the e −2 irradiance points ("Full ...