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Each level in the hierarchy represents an increase in organisational complexity, with each "object" being primarily composed of the previous level's basic unit. [2] The basic principle behind the organisation is the concept of emergence —the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and irrelevant at the lower levels.
Tinbergen's four questions, named after 20th century biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen, are complementary categories of explanations for animal behaviour. These are also commonly referred to as levels of analysis. [1] It suggests that an integrative understanding of behaviour must include ultimate (evolutionary) explanations, in particular:
Biological organization spans several scales and are determined based different structures depending on what the system is. [1] Examples of biological systems at the macro scale are populations of organisms. On the organ and tissue scale in mammals and other animals, examples include the circulatory system, the respiratory system, and the ...
Biologists can study life at multiple levels of organization, [1] from the molecular biology of a cell to the anatomy and physiology of plants and animals, and the evolution of populations. [1] [6] Hence, there are multiple subdisciplines within biology, each defined by the nature of their research questions and the tools that they use.
Two useful introductions to the fundamental theory underlying the unit of selection issue and debate, which also present examples of multi-level selection from the entire range of the biological hierarchy (typically with entities at level N-1 competing for increased representation, i.e., higher frequency, at the immediately higher level N, e.g., organisms in populations or cell lineages in ...
The main levels usually acknowledged are those of matter, life, mind, and society.These are called strata in philosopher Nicolai Hartmann's ontology.Levels can be further analyzed into more specific layers, such as those of particles, atoms, molecules, and rocks forming the material stratum, or those of cells, organisms, populations, and ecosystems forming the life stratum.
Below the level of living systems, he defines space and time, matter and energy, information and entropy, levels of organization, and physical and conceptual factors, and above living systems ecological, planetary and solar systems, galaxies, etc. [3] [4] [5] Miller's central thesis is that the multiple levels of living systems (cells, organs ...
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