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Michael Faraday holding a piece of glass of the type he used to demonstrate the effect of magnetism on polarization of light, c. 1857.. By 1845, it was known through the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel, Étienne-Louis Malus, and others that different materials are able to modify the direction of polarization of light when appropriately oriented, [4] making polarized light a very powerful tool to ...
Charm quarks can exist in either "open charm particles", which contain one or several charm quarks, or as charmonium states, which are bound states of a charm quark and a charm antiquark. [64] There are several charmed mesons, including D ± and D 0. [75] Charmed baryons include Λ c, Σ c, Ξ c, Ω c, with various charges and resonances. [76]
Up, charm and top quarks have an electric charge of + 2 / 3 , while the down, strange, and bottom quarks have an electric charge of − 1 / 3 . Antiquarks have the opposite quantum numbers. Quarks are spin- 1 / 2 particles, and thus fermions. Each quark or antiquark obeys the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula individually, so ...
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When light is transmitted through a layer of magneto-optic material, the result is called the Faraday effect: the plane of polarization can be rotated, forming a Faraday rotator. The results of reflection from a magneto-optic material are known as the magneto-optic Kerr effect (not to be confused with the nonlinear Kerr effect ).
Six "flavors" of quarks: up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top; Six types of leptons: electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino; Twelve gauge bosons (force carriers): the photon of electromagnetism, the three W and Z bosons of the weak force, and the eight gluons of the strong force; The Higgs boson.