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Imidacloprid is more toxic to bees than the organophosphate dimethoate (oral LD 50 152 ng/bee) or the pyrethroid cypermethrin (oral LD 50 160 ng/bee). [34] The toxicity of imidacloprid to bees differs from most insecticides in that it is more toxic orally than by contact. The contact acute LD 50 is 0.024 μg active ingredient per bee. [35]
Alternatively, the bee may come into contact with an insecticide and transport it back to the colony in contaminated pollen or nectar or on its body, potentially causing widespread colony death. [3] Actual damage to bee populations is a function of toxicity and exposure of the compound, in combination with the mode of application.
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Imidacloprid has been the most widely used insecticide in the world from 1999 [5] through at least 2018. [6] [7] Because they affect the central nervous system of insects, neonicotinoids kill or deleteriously affect a wide variety of both target and non-target insects. [8]
Cypermethrin is moderately toxic through skin contact or ingestion. It may cause irritation to the skin and eyes. Symptoms of dermal exposure include numbness, tingling, itching, burning sensation, loss of bladder control, incoordination, seizures and possible death. Pyrethroids may adversely affect the central nervous system.
Imidacloprid, of the neonicotinoid family, is the most widely used insecticide in the world. [25] In the late 1990s neonicotinoids came under increasing scrutiny over their environmental impact and were linked in a range of studies to adverse ecological effects, including honey-bee colony collapse disorder (CCD) and loss of birds due to a ...
Of the neonicotinoids tested (imidacloprid, nitenpyram, and dinotefuran), nitenpyram was shown to not have much genotoxic effects or adversely affect the immune system, either through short or chronic exposure in comparison to the other compounds. In a similar study, nitenpyram was shown to have adverse effects on the DNA of Zebrafish. [15]
However, the cyclopropyl ring does not occur in all pyrethroids. Fenvalerate , which was developed in 1972, is one such example and was the first commercialized pyrethroid without that group. Pyrethroids which lack an α-cyano group are often classified as type I pyrethroids and those with it are called type II pyrethroids .