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Misinformation can also often be observed as news events are unfolding and questionable or unverified information fills information gaps. Even if later retracted, false information can continue to influence actions and memory. [26] Rumors are unverified information not attributed to any particular source and may be either true or false. [27]
Research design refers to the overall strategy utilized to answer research questions. A research design typically outlines the theories and models underlying a project; the research question(s) of a project; a strategy for gathering data and information; and a strategy for producing answers from the data. [ 1 ]
Information laundering or disinformation laundering [1] is the surfacing of news, false or otherwise, from unverified sources into the mainstream. [2] [3] [4] By advancing disinformation to make it accepted as ostensibly legitimate information, information laundering resembles money laundering—the transforming of illicit funds into ostensibly legitimate funds.
The Shorenstein Center at Harvard University defines disinformation research as an academic field that studies "the spread and impacts of misinformation, disinformation, and media manipulation," including "how it spreads through online and offline channels, and why people are susceptible to believing bad information, and successful strategies for mitigating its impact". [23]
Fake news or information disorder is false or misleading information (misinformation, disinformation, propaganda, and hoaxes) claiming the aesthetics and legitimacy of news. [1] Fake news often has the aim of damaging the reputation of a person or entity , [ 2 ] or making money through advertising revenue.
One research found evidence of pro-Trump fake news being selectively targeted on conservatives and pro-Trump supporters in 2016. [74] The researchers found that social media sites, Facebook in particular, to be powerful platforms to spread certain fake news to targeted groups to appeal to their sentiments during the 2016 presidential race.
An example would be how money funded for research is not evenly allocated but instead goes toward one specific ailment remedy. [ 1 ] The definition of stovepiping can also refer to sharing information within a governmental body while hindering the sharing of information across different government bodies. [ 2 ]
The terms also fail to convey the information that was masked and the amount of unblinding that occurred. It is not sufficient to specify the number of parties that have been blinded. To describe an experiment's blinding, it is necessary to report who has been blinded to what information, and how well each blind succeeded. [15]