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Ayni (Quechua and Aymara also spelled Ayniy or Aini) can refer to either the concept of reciprocity or mutualism among people of the Andean mountain communities or the practice of this concept. [1] As a noun, the law of ayni states that everything in the world is connected, and is the only commandment that rules daily life in many communities ...
The term mutualism was introduced by Pierre-Joseph van Beneden in his 1876 book Animal Parasites and Messmates to mean "mutual aid among species". [4] [5] Mutualism is often conflated with two other types of ecological phenomena: cooperation and symbiosis.
Perhaps global mutualism coextinctions are genuinely uncommon, and the model predictions are inaccurate. The models may overestimate the specificity of the mutualisms, because species may only associate with alternative species when their 'normal' mutualist is rare or absent. For example, oligolectic bees visit a small number of flowers for ...
Not all examples of mutualism are also examples of cooperation. Specifically, in by-product mutualism, both participants benefit, but cooperation is not involved. For example, when an elephant defecates, this is beneficial to the elephant as a way to empty waste, and it is also beneficial to a dung beetle that uses the elephant's dung.
Mutualism is a form of symbiosis that is beneficial to both involved organisms. Mutualism has many forms and can occur when the benefits are immediate or deferred, when individuals exchange beneficial behaviors in turn, or when a group of individuals contribute to a common good, where it may be advantageous for all group members to help raise ...
An example of ectosymbiotic bacteria is cutibacterium acnes. These bacteria are involved in a symbiotic relationship with humans on whose skin they live. Cutibacterium acnes can cause acne when the skin becomes too oily, but they also reduce the skin's susceptibility to skin diseases caused by oxidative stress. [5]
Obligate mutualism is a special case of mutualism where an ecological interaction between species mutually benefits each other, and one or all species are unable to survive without the other. [1] In some obligate relationships, only one species is dependent on the relationship.
Perhaps the most widely acclaimed example of a trophic mutualism was the discovery of the leafcutter ant that engage in trophic mutualism with a fungus. [9] These ants cultivate a certain type of fungus by providing it with leaves and other nutrients. In turn, the ants will feed on a special nutrient that is only created by the fungus they nurture.