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For the leptons, the gauge group can be written SU(2) l × U(1) L × U(1) R. The two U(1) factors can be combined into U(1) Y × U(1) l, where l is the lepton number. Gauging of the lepton number is ruled out by experiment, leaving only the possible gauge group SU(2) L × U(1) Y. A similar argument in the quark sector also gives the same result ...
Physics – natural science that involves the study of matter [1] and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. [2] More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. [3] [4] [5]
While the Jones matrix has eight independent parameters [two Cartesian or polar components for each of the four complex values in the 2-by-2 matrix], the absolute phase information is lost in the [equation above], leading to only seven independent matrix elements for a Mueller matrix derived from a Jones matrix.
Y W is the weak hypercharge – the generator of the U(1) group, W → μ is the 3-component SU(2) gauge field, L are the Pauli matrices – infinitesimal generators of the SU(2) group – with subscript L to indicate that they only act on left-chiral fermions, g' and g are the U(1) and SU(2) coupling constants respectively,
The current version is a revised version of the original 1960 textbook Physics for Students of Science and Engineering by Halliday and Resnick, which was published in two parts (Part I containing Chapters 1-25 and covering mechanics and thermodynamics; Part II containing Chapters 26-48 and covering electromagnetism, optics, and introducing ...
Merging general relativity and quantum mechanics (or quantum field theory) into a more general theory of quantum gravity is an area of active research. It is hypothesized that gravitation is mediated by a massless spin-2 particle called the graviton .
[2] [3] Historically, thermodynamics developed out of the desire to increase the efficiency of early steam engines. [4] The starting point for most thermodynamic considerations is the laws of thermodynamics, which postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work. [5]
Meanwhile, AP Physics 2 covered the other content areas. In 2020, the sound, waves, and electricity topics were removed from AP Physics 1 and moved to AP Physics 2. In 2024, the unit covering fluids was moved from AP Physics 2 to AP Physics 1, making space in the AP Physics 2 curriculum for more detail on waves and modern physics. [2] [7]