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A simple cladogram showing the evolutionary relationships between four species: A, B, C, and D. Here, Species A is the outgroup, and Species B, C, and D form the ingroup. In cladistics or phylogenetics, an outgroup [1] is a more distantly related group of organisms that serves as a reference group when determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, the set of organisms under study ...
A nonoptimal cladogram will be selected if the program settles on a local minimum rather than the desired global minimum. [16] To help solve this problem, many cladogram algorithms use a simulated annealing approach to increase the likelihood that the selected cladogram is the optimal one. [17]
Cladogram (a branching tree diagram) illustrating the relationships of organisms within groups of taxa known as clades. The vertical line stem at the base represents the last common ancestor . The blue and orange subgroups are clades, each defined by a common ancestor stem at the base of its respective subgroup branch .
Willi Hennig 1972 Peter Chalmers Mitchell in 1920 Robert John Tillyard. The original methods used in cladistic analysis and the school of taxonomy derived from the work of the German entomologist Willi Hennig, who referred to it as phylogenetic systematics (also the title of his 1966 book); but the terms "cladistics" and "clade" were popularized by other researchers.
Example: Saying that Tyrannosaurus rex had an eyeball is a level 1 inference because both extant members of the groups encompassing Tyrannosaurus rex have eyeballs, and eyeball sockets (orbital excavations) in the skull, the homology of which is well established, and the fossils of Tyrannosaurus rex skulls have similar morphology.
In particular situations, they may be common, for example when a species that has rapidly expanded its range or is highly panmictic undergoes peripatric speciation in different regions. An example is the Drosophila simulans species complex. Here, the ancestor seems to have colonized two islands at the same time but independently, yielding two ...
The phylogenetic classification of bony fishes is a phylogenetic classification of bony fishes and is based on phylogenies inferred using molecular and genomic data for nearly 2000 fishes. [1] [2] [3] The first version was published in 2013 and resolved 66 orders. [2]
The idea of a tree of life arose from ancient notions of a ladder-like progression from lower into higher forms of life (such as in the Great Chain of Being).Early representations of "branching" phylogenetic trees include a "paleontological chart" showing the geological relationships among plants and animals in the book Elementary Geology, by Edward Hitchcock (first edition: 1840).