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A transit level also has the ability to measure both the altitude and azimuth of a target object with respect to a reference in the horizontal plane. The instrument is rotated to sight the target, and the vertical and horizontal angles are read off calibrated scales [ 4 ]
As technology progressed the vertical partial circle was replaced with a full circle, and both vertical and horizontal circles were finely graduated. This was the transit theodolite. This type of theodolite was developed from 18th century astronomical Transit instruments used to measure accurate star positions.
A typical total station can measure distances up to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) with an accuracy of about 1.5 millimeters (0.059 in) ± 2 parts per million. [4] Reflectorless total stations can measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in color, up to a few hundred meters.
Prismatic compass (angle measurement) Ramsden surveying instruments; Ranging rod; Surveyor's chain; Surveyor's compass; Tachymeter (surveying) Tape (surveying) Tellurometer; Theodolite. Half theodolite; Plain theodolite; Simple theodolite; Great theodolite; Non-transit theodolite; Transit theodolite; Seconds theodolite; Electronic theodolite ...
A fast but expensive way to measure large areas is with a helicopter, using a GPS to record the location of the helicopter and a laser scanner to measure the ground. To increase precision, surveyors place beacons on the ground (about 20 km (12 mi) apart). This method reaches precisions between 5–40 cm (depending on flight height). [12]
Range (r) = approximate height of object (h) × (1000 ÷ aperture in milliradians (a)) r = h(1000/a) → where r and h are identical units, and a is in milliradians. r = h/a → where r and h are identical units, and a is in radians. The above formula functions for any system of linear measure provided r and h are calculated with the same units.