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An earlier form of base 32 notation was used by programmers working on the Electrologica X1 to represent machine addresses. The "digits" were represented as decimal numbers from 0 to 31. For example, 12-16 would represent the machine address 400 (= 12 × 32 + 16).
Alice receives all the encrypted messages, and randomly chooses a single message to brute force. After Alice discovers both the identifier X and the secret key Y inside that message, she encrypts her clear text with the secret key Y, and sends that identifier (in cleartext) with her cipher text to Bob.
Picking any two ciphers, if the key used is the same for both, the second cipher could possibly undo the first cipher, partly or entirely. This is true of ciphers where the decryption process is exactly the same as the encryption process (a reciprocal cipher) —the second cipher would completely undo the first.
P w – The first magic constant, defined as Odd((e − 2) × 2 w), where Odd is the nearest odd integer to the given input, e is the base of the natural logarithm, and w is defined above. For common values of w, the associated values of P w are given here in hexadecimal: For w = 16: 0xB7E1; For w = 32: 0xB7E15163; For w = 64: 0xB7E151628AED2A6B
In cryptography, unicity distance is the length of an original ciphertext needed to break the cipher by reducing the number of possible spurious keys to zero in a brute force attack. That is, after trying every possible key , there should be just one decipherment that makes sense, i.e. expected amount of ciphertext needed to determine the key ...
In practice, a typical value for this parameter is 16. In the case of stateless hash-based signatures, few-time signature schemes are used. Such schemes allow security to decrease gradually in case a few-time key is used more than once. HORST is an example of a few-time signature scheme.
The eavesdropper has to solve the Diffie–Hellman problem to obtain g ab. This is currently considered difficult for groups whose order is large enough. An efficient algorithm to solve the discrete logarithm problem would make it easy to compute a or b and solve the Diffie–Hellman problem, making this and many other public key cryptosystems ...
An early example is the Scytale used by the Spartans. [5] The Enigma machine was an electro-mechanical system cipher machine notably used by the Germans in World War II. [citation needed] After World War II, purely electronic systems were developed. In 1987 the ABYSS (A Basic Yorktown Security System) project was initiated.