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The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded.
The gene expression patterns that define cell identity are inherited through cell division. [1] This process is called epigenetic regulation. DNA methylation is reliably inherited through the action of maintenance methylases that modify the nascent DNA strand generated by replication. [1] In mammalian cells, DNA methylation is the primary ...
Recombinant DNA is commonly used in the context of plasmids: short circular DNA molecules with a few genes on them. In the process known as molecular cloning, researchers can amplify the DNA fragments by inserting plasmids into bacteria and then culturing them on plates of agar (to isolate clones of bacteria cells). "Cloning" can also refer to ...
The transferred DNA (called T-DNA) is piloted to the plant cell nucleus by nuclear localization signals present in the Agrobacterium protein VirD2, which is covalently attached to the end of the T-DNA at the Right border (RB). Exactly how the T-DNA is integrated into the host plant genomic DNA is an active area of plant biology research.
Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation, to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus , with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts .
Genes are copied each time a cell divides into two new cells. The process that copies DNA is called DNA replication. [8] It is through a similar process that a child inherits genes from its parents when a copy from the mother is mixed with a copy from the father.
[23] [24] If the DNA is replicated faster than the bacterial cells divide, multiple copies of the chromosome can be present in a single cell, and if the cells divide faster than the DNA can be replicated, multiple replication of the chromosome is initiated before the division occurs, allowing daughter cells to inherit complete genomes and ...
DNA damages arise in each cell, every day, with the number of damages in each cell reaching tens to hundreds of thousands, and such DNA damages can impede primary transcription. [8] The process of gene expression itself is a source of endogenous DNA damages resulting from the susceptibility of single-stranded DNA to damage. [8]