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Direct reciprocity was proposed by Robert Trivers as a mechanism for the evolution of cooperation. [1] If there are repeated encounters between the same two players in an evolutionary game in which each of them can choose either to "cooperate" or "defect", then a strategy of mutual cooperation may be favoured even if it pays each player, in the short term, to defect when the other cooperates.
An operational taxonomic unit (OTU) is an operational definition used to classify groups of closely related individuals.The term was originally introduced in 1963 by Robert R. Sokal and Peter H. A. Sneath in the context of numerical taxonomy, where an "operational taxonomic unit" is simply the group of organisms currently being studied. [1]
Protocooperation is a form of mutualism, but the cooperating species do not depend on each other for survival.An example of protocooperation happens between soil bacteria or fungi, and the plants that occur growing in the soil.
Trading for the resource requires co-operation with the other partner and includes a process of bidding and bargaining. This mechanism can be relied to both within a species or social group and within species systems. It can also be applied to a multi-partner system, in which the owner of a resource has the power to choose its co-operation partner.
If R and S are relations over X then R ∪ S = { (x, y) | xRy or xSy} is the union relation of R and S. The identity element of this operation is the empty relation. For example, ≤ is the union of < and =, and ≥ is the union of > and =. Intersection [e] If R and S are relations over X then R ∩ S = { (x, y) | xRy and xSy} is the ...
This glossary of biology terms is a list of definitions of fundamental terms and concepts used in biology, the study of life and of living organisms.It is intended as introductory material for novices; for more specific and technical definitions from sub-disciplines and related fields, see Glossary of cell biology, Glossary of genetics, Glossary of evolutionary biology, Glossary of ecology ...
Harvard evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr (1961) [8] suggested that there are two fundamentally different types of causation in biology, ‘ultimate’ and ‘proximate’. Ultimate causes (e.g. natural selection ) were seen as (i) providing historical accounts for the existence of an organism's features, and (ii) explaining the function or ...
Oxford Dictionary of Biology (often abbreviated to ODB) is a multiple editions dictionary published by the English Oxford University Press. With more than 5,500 entries, [ 1 ] [ 2 ] it contains comprehensive information in English on topics relating to biology , biophysics , and biochemistry . [ 3 ]