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The grubs can live within the host for several years until eaten by a bird host. When the parasitized host is eaten, the grub matures in the throat of the bird. The eggs of the parasite known as a metacercariae are then released into the water through the bird's mouth when feeding and become adult flukes.
Grubs grow up to 1 cm in length, have a slightly curved, legless body and are creamy white in colour with a tan-brown head. They live below the soil surface, and feed on roots and cambium at the base of trunks. They mostly cause damage to herbaceous plants, particularly those growing in containers, where root growth is restricted.
Diamphotoxin, the toxic compound in Diamphidia, is highly labile, and has a low molecular weight.It is bound to a protein that protects it from deactivation. [2] [4] It causes an increased permeability of cell membranes, which, while not affecting normal ionic flow between cells, allows easy access to all small ions, thereby fatally disrupting normal cellular ionic levels. [5]
The grubs hatch by late July. The grub population consists mainly of first instars in early- to mid-August, second instars by early September, and third instars by mid-September to early October. In frost zones, the grubs feed until November, then move deeper into the soil. In frost-free areas, the larva will feed all winter.
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As the larvae mature, they become c-shaped grubs, which consume progressively coarser roots and may do economic damage to pasture and turf at this time. Larvae hibernate in small cells in the soil, emerging in the spring when soil temperatures rise again. [13] Within 4–6 weeks of breaking hibernation, the larvae will pupate.
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