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The Weathering Hypothesis, first described by Arline Geronimus, has been proposed as the neuroendocrine immune pathway by which Black women experience this higher rate of early pregnancy loss. [41] [42] Racial disparities in pregnancy loss after the completion of 20 weeks of gestation, or stillbirth, have been documented in the United States ...
Furthermore, having fewer than 5 prenatal care visits, not attending prenatal care appointments, and accessing prenatal care later in a pregnancy are associated with maternal mortality. Black women are less likely to initiate prenatal care, with 10% of black women receiving late (third trimester) or no prenatal care, compared with 4% of white ...
High rates of pregnancy-related deaths among women of African descent in North and South America are likely due largely to racism in the form of verbal and physical abuse from health care ...
For racial and ethnic minorities in the United States, health disparities take on many forms, including higher rates of chronic disease, premature death, and maternal mortality compared to the rates among whites. For example, African Americans are 2–3 times more likely to die as a result of pregnancy-related complications than white Americans ...
Whereas 0.8% of non-Hispanic white women do not receive any prenatal care throughout their pregnancy, 2.3% of American Indian and Alaska Native women go entirely without prenatal care. [167] The infant mortality rate for American Indian and Alaska Native populations exceeds that of non-Hispanic white identifying people in the United States.
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The past 60 years have consistently shown considerable racial disparities in pregnancy-related deaths. Between 2011 and 2014, the mortality ratio for different racial populations based on pregnancy-related deaths was as follows: 12.4 deaths per 100,000 live births for white women, 40.0 for black women, and 17.8 for women of other races. [88]
According to data compiled from 1,786 Black and 7,350 white participants ages 9 to 10, racial disparities were reflected in differing adversity outcomes for each group.