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Bladder stones or uroliths are a common occurrence in animals, especially in domestic animals such as dogs and cats. [1] Occurrence in other species, including tortoises, [2] has been reported as well. The stones form in the urinary bladder in varying size and numbers secondary to infection, dietary influences, and genetics.
Some stones are too large even for cystoscopic treatment and may require open cystotomy, in which an incision is made in the bladder and the stones are removed manually. For children with urinary stones, the evidence supporting treatment options is very weak and high quality trials are necessary to help guide clinical management. [17]
Cystinuria is a cause of recurrent kidney stones. It is a disease involving the defective transepithelial transport of cystine and dibasic amino acids in the kidney and intestine and is one of many causes of kidney stones.
Struvite urinary stones and crystals form readily in the urine of animals and humans that are infected with ammonia-producing organisms. They are potentiated by alkaline urine and high magnesium excretion (high magnesium/plant-based diets). They also are potentiated by a specific urinary protein in domestic cats.
Cystoscopy has similar indications in animals, including visualisation and biopsy of mucosa, retrieval or destruction of urinary bladder stones and diagnosis of ectopic ureters. [9] [10] [11] In turtle and tortoises, cystoscopy has additional value as it permits the visualisation of internal organs due to the thin urinary bladder wall. [12]
It is a diagnosis of exclusion which means other possible urinary diseases which could cause bladder inflammation (e.g. feline urinary tract infections or urolithiasis) are ruled out. [5] Research is still being pursued regarding the causes of cystitis in cats, though the following principal risk factors have been identified: [14]
A calculus (pl.: calculi), often called a stone, is a concretion of material, usually mineral salts, that forms in an organ or duct of the body. Formation of calculi is known as lithiasis (/ ˌ l ɪ ˈ θ aɪ ə s ɪ s /). Stones can cause a number of medical conditions.
15-20% of FLUTD cases are caused by uroliths ("stones") which occur when crystals which may be present in urine coalesce to form small stones. The most common types observed are struvite and calcium oxalate. [5] The majority of uroliths are located in the urinary bladder, but can also form in the kidneys, ureters and urethra.