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Initially, paper was ruled by hand, sometimes using templates. [1] Scribes could rule their paper using a "hard point," a sharp implement which left embossed lines on the paper without any ink or color, [2] or could use "metal point," an implement which left colored marks on the paper, much like a graphite pencil, though various other metals were used.
Prior to 1798, paper was made one sheet at a time, by dipping a rectangular frame or mould with a screen bottom into a vat of pulp. The frame was removed from the vat, and the water was pressed out of the pulp. The remaining pulp was allowed to dry; the frame could not be re-used until the previous sheet of paper was removed from it.
The mill thus produced paper for incunables (the name given to the first printed books), such as the Nuremberg Chronicle by Dürer. Also printed on Arches paper was the Description de l'Égypte commissioned by Napoleon I upon his return from his Egyptian campaign, [ 1 ] and the complete works of Voltaire , a printing project that consumed some ...
There are four common types of loose leaves: (1) ruled paper (ja: 横罫. North American sizes include wide ruled, college ruled and narrow ruled, the line height of which are approximately 11 ⁄ 32, 9 ⁄ 32 and 1 ⁄ 4 inch (8.7, 7.1 and 6.4 mm), respectively, attending to different people's needs.
The next generation, between the 18th and 19th centuries, is that of the neoclassicists: Jacques-Louis David, considered the father of French Neoclassicism, a painter of historical paintings in a sober style, produced some etchings with a caricatured tone (English Government, 1793-1794; The Army of Jars, 1793-1794); [12] Pierre-Paul Prud'hon, who sporadically practiced printmaking, in intaglio ...
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The French economy was in continual crisis during the Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty; the paper money, the Assignat, had fallen to a fraction of its value, and prices soared. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis; prices and wages fell, and economic ...
The first set of seven names, chosen at the Chamber of Deputies, came from the list of deputies made by the moderate republican paper Le National. The second set of names, chosen at the Hôtel de Ville, came from a list made by the more radical republican paper La Réforme. In addition to the first set of deputies it included three journalists ...