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The clock rate of the first generation of computers was measured in hertz or kilohertz (kHz), the first personal computers (PCs) to arrive throughout the 1970s and 1980s had clock rates measured in megahertz (MHz), and in the 21st century the speed of modern CPUs is commonly advertised in gigahertz (GHz).
The maximum officially supported Ø2 (primary) clock speed is 14 MHz when operated at 5 volts, indicated by the –14 part number suffix (hobbyists have developed 65C02 homebrew systems that run faster than the official rating).
Dynamic or AC fan-out, not DC fan-out is therefore the primary limiting factor in many practical cases, due to the speed limitation. For example, suppose a microcontroller has 3 devices on its address and data lines, and the microcontroller can drive 35 pF of bus capacitance at its maximum clock speed.
As of 2018, many Intel microprocessors are able to exceed a base clock speed of 4 GHz (Intel Core i7-7700K and i3-7350K have a base clock speed of 4.20 GHz, for example). In 2011, AMD was first able to break the 4 GHz barrier for x86 microprocessors with the debut of the initial Bulldozer based AMD FX CPUs. In June 2013, AMD released the FX ...
For example, a system with an external clock of 100 MHz and a 36x clock multiplier will have an internal CPU clock of 3.6 GHz. The external address and data buses of the CPU (often collectively termed front side bus (FSB) in PC contexts) also use the external clock as a fundamental timing base; however, they could also employ a (small) multiple ...
The primary goal of the 65C02 effort was to move from the original 6502's NMOS process to the CMOS process, which would allow it to run at much lower power levels, somewhere between 1 ⁄ 10 and 1 ⁄ 20 at any given clock speed. Also desired was the ability to raise the maximum supported clock speed.
The 8080 needs two support chips to function in most applications: the i8224 clock generator/driver and the i8228 bus controller. The 8080 is implemented in N-type metal–oxide–semiconductor logic (NMOS) using non-saturated enhancement mode transistors as loads [ 9 ] [ 10 ] thus demanding a +12 V and a −5 V voltage in addition to the main ...
[1] [10] The primary reason cited for the breakdown is that at small sizes, current leakage poses greater challenges and also causes the chip to heat up, which creates a threat of thermal runaway and therefore further increases energy costs. [1] [10] Since 2005, the clock frequency has stagnated at 4 GHz, and the power consumption per CPU at ...