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Set operations in SQL is a type of operations which allow the results of multiple queries to be combined into a single result set. [1] Set operators in SQL include UNION, INTERSECT, and EXCEPT, which mathematically correspond to the concepts of union, intersection and set difference.
SQL includes operators and functions for calculating values on stored values. SQL allows the use of expressions in the select list to project data, as in the following example, which returns a list of books that cost more than 100.00 with an additional sales_tax column containing a sales tax figure calculated at 6% of the price.
The union operator (υ) combines the tuples of two relations and removes all duplicate tuples from the result. The relational union operator is equivalent to the SQL UNION operator. The intersection operator (∩) produces the set of tuples that two relations share in common. Intersection is implemented in SQL in the form of the INTERSECT operator.
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The sort criteria can be expressions, including column names, user-defined functions, arithmetic operations, or CASE expressions. The expressions are evaluated and the results are used for the sorting, i.e., the values stored in the column or the results of the function call. ORDER BY is the only way to sort the rows in the result set.
One common convention is to associate intersection = {: ()} with logical conjunction (and) and associate union = {: ()} with logical disjunction (or), and then transfer the precedence of these logical operators (where has precedence over ) to these set operators, thereby giving precedence over .
The relational algebra uses set union, set difference, and Cartesian product from set theory, and adds additional constraints to these operators to create new ones.. For set union and set difference, the two relations involved must be union-compatible—that is, the two relations must have the same set of attributes.
The function is passed to the operator as a delegate. This implements the Map higher-order function. Where The Where operator allows the definition of a set of predicate rules that are evaluated for each object in the collection, while objects that do not match the rule are filtered away. The predicate is supplied to the operator as a delegate.