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Rarely used in modern mathematics without a horizontal bar delimiting the width of its argument (see the next item). For example, √2. √ (radical symbol) 1. Denotes square root and is read as the square root of. For example, +. 2. With an integer greater than 2 as a left superscript, denotes an n th root.
The lowest passing grade in an exam is usually D or 1 point and to be considered for graduation students must obtain a minimum cumulative GPA of 2.000. Universities are free to (and hence, might) adopt different grading systems or standards at will. Some examples are:
In Spain, the Latin honors Summa cum laude is used for PhD degrees only and is the highest possible qualification. It is only applicable to doctoral degrees that achieve an outstanding mark (10/10) and it is awarded after a secret vote of the jury members, using envelopes that must be opened in a session separate from the defense session.
Many letters of the Latin alphabet, both capital and small, are used in mathematics, science, and engineering to denote by convention specific or abstracted constants, variables of a certain type, units, multipliers, or physical entities. Certain letters, when combined with special formatting, take on special meaning.
The Latin and Greek alphabets are used extensively, but a few letters of other alphabets are also used sporadically, such as the Hebrew , Cyrillic Ш, and Hiragana よ. Uppercase and lowercase letters are considered as different symbols. For Latin alphabet, different typefaces also provide different symbols.
Bachelor's degrees in Algerian universities are called "الليسانس" in Arabic or la licence in French; the degree normally takes three years to complete and is a part of the LMD ("licence", "master", "doctorat") reform, students can enroll in a bachelor's degree program in different fields of study after having obtained their baccalauréat (the national secondary education test).
Rigor is a cornerstone quality of mathematics, and can play an important role in preventing mathematics from degenerating into fallacies. well-behaved An object is well-behaved (in contrast with being Pathological ) if it satisfies certain prevailing regularity properties, or if it conforms to mathematical intuition (even though intuition can ...
Two abstract areas of modern mathematics are category theory and model theory. Bertrand Russell [94] once said, "Ordinary language is totally unsuited for expressing what physics really asserts, since the words of everyday life are not sufficiently abstract. Only mathematics and mathematical logic can say as little as the physicist means to say."