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It contradicted with the theory proposed by Robert Cialdini in 1987 [6] which supported that empathy-altruism hypothesis was actually the product of an entirely egoistic desire for personal mood management. Many researchers have challenged the generalizability of the model.
The book Influence: Science and Practice by Robert Cialdini is a prominent work in the field of reciprocity and social psychology. First published in 1984, the work outlines the main principles of influence, and how they can be applied in one's life to succeed, especially in business endeavors. [ 38 ]
Robert Beno Cialdini (born April 27, 1945) is an American psychologist. He is the Regents' Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Marketing at Arizona State University and was a visiting professor of marketing, business and psychology at Stanford University .
The norm of reciprocity mirrors the concept of reciprocal altruism in evolutionary biology. However, evolutionary theory and therefore sociobiology was not well-received by mainstream psychologists. This led to reciprocal altruism being studied instead under a new social-psychological concept: the norm of reciprocity.
The term was coined by Robert Cialdini in his 1984 book Influence: Science and Practice. Social proof is used in ambiguous social situations where people are unable to determine the appropriate mode of behavior, and is driven by the assumption that the surrounding people possess more knowledge about the current situation.
Reciprocal altruism is the idea that the incentive for an individual to help in the present is based on the expectation of receipt of help in the future. [6] Robert Trivers believes it is advantageous for an organism to pay a cost for the benefit of another non-related organism if the favor is repaid (when the benefit of the sacrifice outweighs the cost).
Axelrod, Robert. The Evolution of Cooperation. New York: Basic Books, 1984. Revised edition 2006. Tit-for-tat as a cooperative strategy. Reciprocal altruism in evolutionary biology and rational choice theory. Barry, Brian. A Treatise on Social Justice. Volume I: Theories of Justice. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
One of the most influential studies of this phenomenon was done by Robert Cialdini in 1976, known as The Three (Football) Field Study. [9] He discovered that the students sought to have the success of their football team linked to them by wearing school-identified apparel.