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Byzantium, threatened by Varangian Rus' raiders, would assist Khazaria, and Khazaria at times allowed the northerners to pass through their territory in exchange for a portion of the booty. [121] From the beginning of the 10th century, the Khazars found themselves fighting on multiple fronts as nomadic incursions were exacerbated by uprisings ...
The 2002 discovery of a coin hoard in Sweden further complicates the issue, as some of the coins bear dates from the early 9th century and the legends "Ard al-Khazar" (Land of the Khazars) and "Moses is the Prophet of God". Since the coins date from 837 AD or 838 AD, some scholars think the conversion occurred in 838 AD.
Map showing the major Varangian trade routes of the 8th–11th centuries, with Balanjar along the Volga trade route (in red). Samandar (also Semender ) was a city in (and briefly capital of) Khazaria , on the western shore of the Caspian Sea , in what is now Daghestan .
At least some of the Khazar elite apparently converted to Judaism, [9] but this might not have included Kabars. [10] [11] The conversion did not seem to have impacted most of the population in the Khazar Khaganate: paganism remained as the religion of the majority of the population, and there were also notable Christian and Muslim groups. [9]
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However, modern scholars consider this to probably be an echo (or, possibly, the actual date) of the 722 Balanjar campaign. [ 98 ] [ 110 ] [ 111 ] The Khazars raided south of the Caucasus in response, but in February 724, al-Jarrah decisively defeated them in a days-long battle between the rivers Cyrus and Araxes . [ 98 ]
Following the defeat of the Khazars in the Second Arab-Khazar War, Atil became the capital of Khazaria. Ibn Khordadbeh, writing in ca. 870, names Khamlij as the capital of the Khazars. [3] This is presumably a rendition of Turkic khaganbaligh "city of the khan" and refers to the city later (in the 10th century) named as Atil in Arab historiography.