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Electromagnetic (e.g. radio or light) waves are conceptually pure single frequency phenomena while pulses may be mathematically thought of as composed of a number of pure frequencies that sum and nullify in interactions that create a pulse train of the specific amplitudes, PRRs, base frequencies, phase characteristics, et cetera (See Fourier Analysis).
In the early 2000s, high-frequency trading still accounted for fewer than 10% of equity orders, but this proportion was soon to begin rapid growth. According to data from the NYSE, trading volume grew by about 164% between 2005 and 2009 for which high-frequency trading might be accounted. [23]
In the U.S., high-frequency trading (HFT) firms represent 2% of the approximately 20,000 firms operating today, but account for 73% of all equity trading volume. [73] As of the first quarter in 2009, total assets under management for hedge funds with HFT strategies were US$141 billion, down about 21% from their high. [74]
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However, under section 5 [36] of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and Regulation ATS of 1998, off-exchange trading was allowed for up to five percent of the national volume of a stock. [ 35 ] The U.S. SEC adopted rules, as amendments to Regulation ATS, to require disclosures about dark pools in 2018. [ 37 ]
IEX's main innovation is a 38-mile (61 km) coil of optical fiber placed in front of its trading engine. This additional length of cable results in a 350 microsecond delay, referred to as a "speed bump". [6] The round-trip delay of 0.0007 seconds is designed to negate the certain speed advantages utilized by some high-frequency traders. [7]