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Here, k e is a constant, q 1 and q 2 are the quantities of each charge, and the scalar r is the distance between the charges. The force is along the straight line joining the two charges. If the charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them makes them repel; if they have different signs, the force between them makes them attract.
A positive value of U is due to a repulsive force, so interacting particles are at higher energy levels as they get closer. A negative potential energy indicates a bound state (due to an attractive force). The Coulomb barrier increases with the atomic numbers (i.e. the number of protons) of the colliding nuclei:
Using the Planck units, and the value evaluated in 2025 for the Hubble constant H 0 = 76.5 ± 2.2 (km/s)/Mpc = (2.48 ± 0.07) × 10 −18 s −1 [18], Λ has the value of = = = where is the Planck length.A positive vacuum energy density resulting from a cosmological constant implies a negative pressure, and vice versa. If the energy density is ...
Comparison between the Nuclear Force and the Coulomb Force. a – residual strong force (nuclear force), rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm, b – at distances less than ~ 0.7 fm between nucleons centres the nuclear force becomes repulsive, c – coulomb repulsion force between two protons (over 3 fm, force becomes the main), d – equilibrium position for ...
If k 2 is greater than one, F 2 − F 1 is a negative number; thus, the added inverse-cube force is attractive, as observed in the green planet of Figures 1–4 and 9. By contrast, if k 2 is less than one, F 2 − F 1 is a positive number; the added inverse-cube force is repulsive , as observed in the green planet of Figures 5 and 10, and in ...
For example, the constant π may be defined as the ratio of the length of a circle's circumference to its diameter. The following list includes a decimal expansion and set containing each number, ordered by year of discovery. The column headings may be clicked to sort the table alphabetically, by decimal value, or by set.
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The constants listed here are known values of physical constants expressed in SI units; that is, physical quantities that are generally believed to be universal in nature and thus are independent of the unit system in which they are measured.