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Myostatin is a myokine that is produced and released by myocytes and acts on muscle cells to inhibit muscle growth. [7] Myostatin is a secreted growth differentiation factor that is a member of the TGF beta protein family. [8] [9] Myostatin is assembled and produced in skeletal muscle before it is released into the blood stream. [10]
Testosterone is the primary male sex hormone and androgen in males. [3] In humans, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as testicles and prostate, as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.
One example is serum response factor, a protein that activates several genes that cause muscle growth. [ 27 ] Androgen receptor is modified by post-translational modification through acetylation , [ 28 ] which directly promotes AR-mediated transactivation , apoptosis [ 29 ] and contact-independent growth of prostate cancer cells. [ 30 ]
This protein normally restrains muscle growth, ensuring that muscles do not grow too large. Mutations that reduce the production of functional myostatin lead to an overgrowth of muscle tissue. Myostatin-related muscle hypertrophy has a pattern of inheritance known as incomplete autosomal dominance.
Finally, the muscle fibers that form later arise from satellite cells. [3] Two genes significant in muscle fusion are Mef2 and the twist transcription factor. Studies have shown knockouts for Mef2C in mice lead to muscle defects in cardiac and smooth muscle development, particularly in fusion. [13] The twist gene plays a role in muscle ...
A myokine is one of several hundred cytokines or other small proteins (~5–20 kDa) and proteoglycan peptides that are produced and released by skeletal muscle cells (muscle fibers) in response to muscular contractions. [1] They have autocrine, paracrine and/or endocrine effects; [2] their systemic effects occur at picomolar concentrations. [3] [4]
Another view is that muscles cells evolved more than once, and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution, and the development of shared genes that predate the evolution of muscle – even the mesoderm (the mesoderm is the germ layer that gives rise to muscle cells in vertebrates).
The regulation of chloride flow within muscle cells plays a role in controlling muscle contraction and relaxation. [5] The anoctamin-5 protein is also found in other cells including heart (cardiac) muscle cells and bone cells. The anoctamin-5 protein may be important for the development of muscle and bone before birth. [5]