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The friend class mechanism allows to extend the storage and access to the parts, while retaining proper encapsulation as seen by the users of the data structure. Similar to a friend class, a friend function is a function that is given access to the private and protected members of the class in which it is declared as a friend.
In other words, C++ does not have "submodules", meaning the . symbol which may be included in a module name bears no syntactic meaning and is used only to suggest the association of a module. As an example, std.compat is not a submodule of std , but is named so to indicate the association the module bears to the std module (as a "compatibility ...
In 1989, C++ 2.0 was released, followed by the updated second edition of The C++ Programming Language in 1991. [32] New features in 2.0 included multiple inheritance, abstract classes, static member functions, const member functions, and protected members. In 1990, The Annotated C++ Reference Manual was published. This work became the basis for ...
A friend function is declared by the class that is granting access, so friend functions are part of the class interface, like methods. Friend functions allow alternative syntax to use objects, for instance f(x) instead of x.f(), or g(x,y) instead of x.g(y). Friend functions have the same implications on encapsulation as methods.
The class will be accessible to other classes in the same package but will be inaccessible to classes outside the package. When we say that a class is inaccessible, it simply means that we cannot create an object of that class or declare a variable of that class type. The protected access specifier too cannot be applied to a class.
// A class template to express an equality comparison interface. template < typename T > class equal_comparable {friend bool operator == (T const & a, T const & b) {return a. equal_to (b);} friend bool operator!= (T const & a, T const & b) {return! a. equal_to (b);}}; // Class value_type wants to have == and !=, so it derives from // equal_comparable with itself as argument (which is the CRTP ...
In the C++ programming language, special member functions [1] are functions which the compiler will automatically generate if they are used, but not declared explicitly by the programmer. The automatically generated special member functions are: Default constructor if no other constructor is explicitly declared.
C++20 replaced the prior version of the C++ standard, called C++17, and was later replaced by C++23. [1] The standard was technically finalized [ 2 ] by WG21 at the meeting in Prague in February 2020, [ 3 ] had its final draft version announced in March 2020, [ 4 ] was approved on 4 September 2020, [ 5 ] [ 6 ] and published in December 2020.