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Sugar signal transduction is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism used by organisms to survive.Sugars have an overwhelming effect on gene expression.In yeast, glucose levels are managed by controlling the mRNA levels of hexose transporters, while in mammals, the response to glucose is more tightly controlled with glucose metabolism and is therefore much more complex.
A more complex signal transduction pathway is the MAPK/ERK pathway, which involves changes of protein–protein interactions inside the cell, induced by an external signal. Many growth factors bind to receptors at the cell surface and stimulate cells to progress through the cell cycle and divide .
This insulin signal transduction pathway is composed of trigger mechanisms (e.g., autophosphorylation mechanisms) that serve as signals throughout the cell. There is also a counter mechanism in the body to stop the secretion of insulin beyond a certain limit. Namely, those counter-regulatory mechanisms are glucagon and epinephrine.
The insulin receptor (IR) is a transmembrane receptor that is activated by insulin, IGF-I, IGF-II and belongs to the large class of receptor tyrosine kinase. [5] Metabolically, the insulin receptor plays a key role in the regulation of glucose homeostasis; a functional process that under degenerate conditions may result in a range of clinical manifestations including diabetes and cancer.
The mechanism regarding this insulin increase involves Ex-4 and GLP-1. When the islets in the pancreas are exposed to GLP-1, there is an increased expression of the anti-apoptotic gene bcl-2 and decreased expression of pro-apoptotic genes bax and caspase-3 , which leads to greater cell survival.
PEP (phosphoenol pyruvate) group translocation, also known as the phosphotransferase system or PTS, is a distinct method used by bacteria for sugar uptake where the source of energy is from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). It is known to be a multicomponent system that always involves enzymes of the plasma membrane and those in the cytoplasm.
Defined in the narrowest sense, glycobiology is the study of the structure, biosynthesis, and biology of saccharides (sugar chains or glycans) that are widely distributed in nature. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Sugars or saccharides are essential components of all living things and aspects of the various roles they play in biology are researched in various ...
External reactions and internal reactions for signal transduction (click to enlarge) Signal transduction processes through membrane receptors involve the external reactions, in which the ligand binds to a membrane receptor, and the internal reactions, in which intracellular response is triggered. [10] [11]